Emperor Yuan of China, and his lovers Hong Gong and Shi Xian

r 75 - 33 BCE



(Also spelled Hàn Yúan-dì, or Han Yüan-ti) Son of emperor Xuan, his birth name was Liú Shì, and ruled from 48 to 33 BC. His posthumous name was Xiào Yúan ("filial and original"). Two of the great Chinese inventions, paper and porcelain, date from Han times. His known male lovers were imperial secretary Hong Gong and chief eunuch Shi Xian.
Emperor Yuan was remembered for the promotion of Confucianism as the official creed of Chinese government. He appointed Confucius adherents to important government posts. He was, in many ways, a kind and gentle man who cared for the people.

Emperor Xuan-di of China, r.74-49 BCE

(Also spelled Hàn Xúan-dì or Han Hsün-ti) Son of Liu Ju, crown prince of Emperor Wu, his personal name was Liú Xún, or Bìngyi. He beame emperor in 74 BC. One of his known lovers was Zhang Pengzu. His posthumous name was Xiào Xúan, literary meaning: "filial and proclaimed".

In the year 74 BC, Emperor Zhao-di died, Huo Guang deposed the original heir to the Han throne, and Liu Bingyi was placed on the throne instead.

Emperor Xuan-di ruled for twenty-eight years, during which he tried to reduce the corruption that crept into the government. However, his attempts were ineffective, and his son and heir, Yuan-di, was the first of many dysfunctional monarchs; the chance of an inept monarch inheriting power again manifesting itself.

Emperor Zhao: China, Han emperor

r. (95 - 74 BC)

Also called Han Chao-ti, he was the youngest son of Emperor Wu of Han China, and his personal name was Liu Fuling. He ruled from 87 to 74 BC and died without children. His known male lover was Jin Shang. His posthumous name was Xi O Zhao, meaning "filial and shining". 


In the year 91 BC, as Wu-di’s reign was ending, a violent war erupted around the capital over who would succeed him. On one side was the Empress with the heir apparent and on the other side was the family of one of Wu-di’s concubines. The two families came close to destroying each other. Then just before Wu-di’s death, a compromise heir was chosen: the eight-year-old Liu Fuling, who was put on the regency of Huo Guang, a former general.

Huo Guang organized a conference to inquire about the discontent of the Lord’s subjects. Invited to the conference were government officials of the legalist school and worthy representatives of Confucianism. The Legalists argued for maintaining the status quo. They argued that their economic policies helped maintain China’s defences against the continued hostility of the Xiong Nu, and that they were protecting the people against exploitation of traders. They argued in favour of the western expansion because it brought the empire horses, camels, fruits, and various imported luxuries, such as furs, rugs, and precious stones.

The Confucianists, on the other hand, made a moral issue of peasant grievances. They also argued that the Chinese had no business in Central Asia and that China should stay within its borders and live in peace with its neighbours. The Confucianists argued that trade was not a proper activity of government, that government should not compete with private tradesmen, and they complained that the imported goods mentioned by the Legalists found their way only to the houses of the rich.

Under Huo Guang’s regency, taxes were reduced and peace negotiations began with the Xiong Nu chieftains. The young Emperor, Zhao-di, died in 74 Huo Guang died peacefully six years later, but Palace rivalry led to the charges of treason against Huo Guang’s wife, son, and many of Huo Guang’s relatives and family associates, and they were executed.

Wu-di Xiao (156 - 86 BC) China, Han emperor

r. 156 - 86 BCE

In the year 140 BC, Jing-di was succeeded by his son, Liu Zhe (Emperor Wu/Wu-di), a bright and spirited sixteen-year-old. Emperor Wu's reign prolonged the prosperity of the Dynasty. Wu-di's reign began with a hands-off approach to commerce and economy, which allowed more growth in the economy's private sector.

Wu-di kept his civil administrators under a tight rule, and treated the slightest protest as disloyalty. He ended his father's compromise with the nobility, waged war against China's most defiant Princes, and gave more control to his civil servants on a local level.

Emperor Wu changed the laws on inheritance. Instead of a family's land remaining under the eldest son, he gave all sons the right to an equal part of their father's land. This was done to break the larger estates into smaller pieces.

In 138 BC, Wu-di sent China's first known explorer, Zhang Qian to Parthia, west of Bactria, to establish relations with Kushan.

In the twentieth year of Wu-di's rule, Confucianism became China's official political philosophy. Confucianism began to dominate in the civil service, while legalist rivals continued to hold their positions.

Examinations for China's 130,000 civil service positions were based on the applicant's knowledge of Confucianism, knowledge of ancient writings and rules of social grace, rather than technical expertise.

Theoretically, these examinations were open to all citizens, but in reality, they were only for those with adequate respectability. Artisans, merchants and others of a class lower than gentry were excluded. No doubt, some of these people could have served China well.

On the job, training for civil servants occurred in bureaucracies at the local level, and merit became a consideration before and after a civil servant's apprenticeship.

A young man who proved himself as a clerk may become a manager. After proving himself as a manager, he might move up to a position as an advisor in attendance at the Emperor's palace, or move to a high position at a regional capital.

With the economic prosperity during Wu-di's rule, allowed China to wage war. Wu-di believed he was strong enough to oppose the Xiong Nu, and wanted to end the payments to the tribes that were started by Liu Bang. However, Wu-di was concerned that the Xiong Nu might send an army into Northern China's sparsely populated steppe lands, or that they would ally themselves with the Tibetans. After securing his trade routes to Central Asia, Wu-di launched a series of military campaigns. Though his generals led the troops for him, Wu-di gained recognition as a ruler of vigour and bravery.

Wu-di's attack on the Xiong Nu was costly in manpower, but it pushed most of the Xiong Nu back from China's northern frontier.

Almost two million Chinese citizens migrated into the newly acquired territory, and Wu-di established new colonies of soldiers and civilians. The Xiong Nu who stayed behind became farmers, were drafted for construction labour, or employed as farm labourers. Moreover, even some of them were drafted into the Chinese army, their families forced to remain were they were as hostages against treason.

The war against the Xiong Nu stimulated exploration farther westward. After thirteen years of captivity by the Xiong Nu, Zhang Qian went back to Wu-di's court to give him the first reliable description of Central Asia.

Wu-di ordered Zhang Qian and his assistants back to Central Asia, and they gathered information about India and Persia and explored the fertile farmlands of Bactria.

These explorations and China's success against the Xiong Nu brought an exchange of envoys between China and states to the west. Moreover, more importantly for China, this opened up the 4,000-mile trade route that would be known as the Silk Road. China began breeding a superior breed of horses, and it began growing Alfalfa and grapes.

Wu-di learned more about the origins of the products they were importing. For added revenues, Wu-di demanded that the neighbouring states pay his Empire to sell their goods to the Chinese, and he began military campaigns to force them to do so.

In 108 BC, Wu-di sent his forces northeast and conquered an iron-using Kingdom in northern Korea. This Kingdom was similar to the states of China before Liu Bang united them, and it harboured many Chinese refugees from the previous century.

In the south, Wu-di's armies conquered territory lost during the civil war that brought the Han to power, including the port town of Guangzhou. Chinese immigrants followed the army closely and occupied the new territories.

After a long and tiresome struggle, the Chinese army managed to conquer Northern Vietnam, an area that the Chinese called Annam (Tang Dynasty), which means "Pacified South". Chinese immigrants came here as well, and some would settle near the Annamite Mountains in Central Vietnam.

The Chinese introduced Vietnam to the water buffalo, metal plows, and other tools, and they brought them their written language. They divided Annam into administrative areas; each administration was responsible for collecting taxes and drafting soldiers.

However, Chinese rule in Annam would remain tenuous, its jungles and mountains gave sanctuary to Vietnamese who would conduct continuous raids against the Chinese settlements.

Wu-di's war of expansion and maintenance of large armies were a burden on the economy. They offset the benefits of the increase in trade followed by those conquests. Imports contributed more to the pleasures of the wealthy than they did to China's economic vitality. Legalist officials made it worse by being hostile to private tradesmen, and they led a drive for government control of the economy.

Because of this, the government levied new taxes on carts and boats, and took over China's most profitable industries: salt and iron. Moreover, with the rise in government influences the economy suffered.

With the growth of peasant population and the increase of land owned by the wealthy, a shortage of land appeared. Gentry bureaucrats bought more land out of precaution, and often abused their position to do so, and they were able to make their land tax exempt.

Ordinary peasants were paying a larger share in taxes, resulting in the need to loan money. Farming productivity declined. Many peasants were evicted or were forced to leave farming, making more land available to the gentry. Some peasants resorted to banditry, and some struggling peasants sold their children into slavery.

Conscription into the military and conscription for labour added to the peasantry's discontent. China's most renowned Confucian scholar, Dong Zhongshu, was outraged by the plight of the peasants and led the way in expressing concern about social decay. He claimed that the vast extend of lands was owned by the wealthy, while the poor had no spot to plant their feet on. He complained about the extreme taxes and pointed out that poorer farmers could not afford metal working tools to speed up their productivity.

Dong Zhongshu proposed to Wu-di a remedy for the economic crisis: reduce taxes for peasants, reduce amount of unpaid labour that civilians had to do for the local bureaucracy, abolish the government's monopoly on salt and iron, and improve land distribution.

Wu-di wanted to help the peasants but was deceived by gentry administrators. Confucianists led the drive for reform, but gentry Confucians did not want to go against their own economic interests.

Wu-di's only substantial response was to lower taxes for the poor, and levy higher taxes for the wealthy. He also sent out spies to report on possible tax evaders. He chose to ignore land distribution, not wishing to offend wealthy landowners, believing he needed their cooperation to finance his military campaigns.

In 91 BC as Wu-di's fifty-four year reign neared its end, a violent war erupted around the capital about who was to succeed him. On one side was the Empress with her heir apparent and on the other side was one of Wu-di's concubines. The two families came close to destroying each other. Then, just before Wu-di's death, a compromise heir was chosen: the eight-year-old Liu Fuling, who was to be known as Zhao-di, was put under the regency of Huo Guang, a former general.

Emperor Wu, skilled in archery and warfare, and the founder of China's first universities, had several male lovers - Han Yan, Han Yue and Li Yannian.
Han Yan was an illegitimate grandson of Han Tuidang, the Marquis of Conggao. When Wu was still young, they studied writing together and they became lovers. Yan was skillful at riding and archery and also very good at ingratiating himself with the future emperor. When Wu was enthroned, Yan was soon advanced to the rank of superior lord. But later, having in the empress dowager a grudge against Yan, she forced the emperor Wu to force Yan to commit suicide.
Li Yannian was originally a singer and musician, but, convicted of some crime, was condemned to castration. As an eunuch, he entered the service of the emperor Wu, and as he knew how to compose new tunes, was charged by the emperor to set to music some lyrics. The emperor was pleased of his work, and took him as his favorite. Day and night he was by the emperor's side and his honor and favor equalled that which Han Yan had formerly enjoyed.


Source:

• Matt & Andrej Komasky

Books:

•  Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China  

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• Right Royal Queens

Emperor Wen (202 - 157 BC), China

r. 202 - 157 BCE

Han Wen-ti (also spelled Hàn Wén Dì), after eliminating the powerful Lü clan, was deliberately chosen as the emperor, since his mother, Consort Bo, had no powerful relatives. His reign brought a much needed political stability that laid the groundwork for prosperity under Emperor Wu.

According to historians, Emperor Wen trusted and consulted with Confucian-educated ministers on state affairs; under the influence of his Daoist wife, Empress Dou, the emperor also sought to avoid wasteful expenditures.

Legends noted that the tax rates were at a ratio of "1 out of 30" and "1 out of 60", corresponding to 0.03 and 0.016 percent, respectively. Warehouses were so full of grain, that some of it was left to decay.

In a move of lasting importance in 165 BC, Emperor Wen introduced recruitment to the civil service through examinations. Previously, potential officials never sat for any sort of academic examinations. Their names were sent by local officials to the central government based on reputations and abilities, which were sometimes judged subjectively.

According to a legend, Han Wen-ti was related to the Lantern Festival. The Emperor Han Wen-ti suppressed a riot threatening his throne position on the 15th of the first month of the lunar calendar year, so he went out of his palace to enjoy himself with the people at the night of this day each year, and he named this day the Lantern Festival.

His known lovers were Deng Tong, Zhao Tan, Beigong Bozi.

Once emperor Wen dreamed that he was trying to climb to Heaven but could not seem to make his way up. Just then a yellow-capped boatman boosted him from behind, and was able to reach heaven. When the emperor turned around to look at the man, he noticed that the seam of the boatman's robe was split in the back just below the sash.

After the emperor awoke, he went to the Terrace of Lapping Water, and began to search furtively for the man he saw in his dream. There was Deng Tong, who happened to have a tear in the back of his robe exactly like that of the man in the dream.

The emperor summoned him and asked his name, and when he learned that the man's family name was Dend (= ascend) and his personal name was Tong (= reach), the emperor was overjoyed. From this time on, the emperor bestoved ever-increasing favor and honor upon Deng. ... The emperor from time to time even paid visits to Deng Tong's home to amuse himself there.

Source:

• Han Ruler and Emperor Biographies
• Matt & Andrej Komasky

Books:

•  Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China  

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• Right Royal Queens

Emperor Jing of Han, Chinese Emperor

r. 156 BC to 141 BCE

Emperor Jing of Han was emperor from 156 BC to 141 BC. His reign saw the limit and curtailment of power of feudal princes which resulted in the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC. Emperor Jing managed to crush the revolt and princes were thereafter denied rights to appoint ministers for their fief. This move consolidated central power which paved the way for the glorious and long reign of his son Emperor Wu of Han.

The most famous of emperor Jing's favorites was Zhou Ren, whose talents at the "secrete games" played in the imperial bed Jing relished. As a result of sexual favor, Zhou Ren and his family found themselves showered with honors and presents from the emperor, aristocracy, and officialdom. The advantages he gained were passed down to his progeny, enabling them to gain entry to the highest circles of government.

Source:

• Matt & Andrej Komasky

Books:

•  Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China  

Related Posts

• Right Royal Queens